NOTE: End date changed to 12/31/2022 per HRP and "in progress" information in NSSC (Ed., 3/20/2020)

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2020 per NSSC information (Ed., 6/28/19)

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2019 per NSSC information (Ed., 3/6/18)

NOTE: Element change to Human Factors & Behavioral Performance; previously Behavioral Health & Performance (Ed., 1/18/17)

Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7

Task Progress

Aims of Proposal: Our research addresses the performance effects of entrainment as crew members engage in tasks by investing their physical, cognitive, and emotional resources in the task. Although engagement is beneficial for crew members’ overall task effectiveness, it can also foster attention residue, or the inability to decouple one’s energies from a prior task, which can dampen a crew member’s engagement and effectiveness in subsequent tasks. We explore what can be done to mitigate these negative effects of entrainment as well as how to improve individual and team capabilities to effectively schedule and switch tasks. We specifically sought to (1) understand threats to teams during long-duration missions; (2) identify countermeasures to support team function for all phases of autonomous, long-duration missions; and (3) identify psychosocial and psychological factors that influence crew effectiveness for autonomous, long-duration missions.

To probe the entrainment/task switching phenomenon, we collected 477 task transitions from 20 crew members across 5 missions in the Human Exploration Research Analog (HERA). Here we found that crew members' engagement in one task promoted their engagement in a subsequent task, as well as an indirect increase in effectiveness on that subsequent task. In other words, as crew members investigated their physical, cognitive, and emotional energy into one task, it created positive momentum that positively influenced their performance on subsequent tasks. However, task engagement also introduced attention residue that damped these positive spillover effects as crew members struggled to disconnect cognitively in switching gears between tasks.

To expand on these insights, we designed a laboratory experiment in which 346 undergraduate students worked in crews of four and transitioned between various tasks. Building on the HERA findings, the laboratory experiment revealed that engaging in a task elicits positive emotions that spill over to enhance subsequent task engagement and effectiveness. However, as with the HERA crew members, task engagement also elicited attention residue, particularly when individuals did not have a sense of completion prior to switching to a subsequent task.

To further deepen our understanding of these effects, we collected 83 task transitions with six astronauts aboard the International Space Station. Although a larger sample size would provide greater statistical power, the pattern of results is similar to the HERA and laboratory studies. As astronauts engaged in tasks, doing so elicited feelings of excitement and enthusiasm. Additionally, as they engaged tasks, doing so also introduced attention residue that interfered with their subsequent engagement. One crew member reported a lingering rumination after a transition. Another crew member highlighted the importance of completion.

The aggregated findings from these three studies speak to the importance of several factors. First, there is a positive spillover of engagement that occurs between tasks. A primary explanation of this effect is the presence of positive emotions that ripple to enhance and maintain subsequent engagement and performance. Second, managing attention residue is essential so that the enhancing effects of task engagement can flow unobstructed throughout a workday. Third, task completion is a key solution in minimizing the negative effects of attention residue. Completion highlights the value of reducing interruptions or other forced task transitions that introduce attention residue and potential performance decrements. For more information and details on these studies and insights, please see Newton, LePine, Kim, Wellman, and Bush (2020).

During conversations with crew members, several suggested that in addition to the influence of previous tasks, upcoming tasks may also influence engagement and performance. This view is understandable given that crew members engage in daily planning and frequently review the daily task schedule to facilitate task preparation and effective task accomplishment. Although research has shown the value of task planning to motivation and performance, we reasoned that looking ahead may impair performance on a current task because the crew member’s attention would be attached to the upcoming task. We refer to this notion as anticipatory engagement.

We examined the effects of anticipatory engagement in HERA and Nazemnyy Eksperimental’nyy Kompleks (NEK). We collected 556 task transitions from 16 crew members across 4 missions in HERA and found that anticipatory engagement in a future task impaired present task performance because it reduced crew members’ engagement in the present task. We then collected 379 task transitions from 6 crew members in Scientific International Research In a Unique terrestrial Station (SIRIUS)-19 in NEK and found that anticipatory engagement only reduced crew members’ engagement in the present task when the future task was complex. Although less conclusive, these findings provide some evidence of the effects of crew members’ “taking their eye off the ball”.

Prompted by these insights, we sought to investigate the role of task planning and scheduling that might accentuate the positive effects and mitigate the negative effects of task engagement in a system of day-level tasks. The information that follows is still pre-publication and currently under review. We addressed task scheduling in terms of task meaningfulness, a core driver of engagement (Kahn, 1990). We first collected 486 day-level responses from 6 crew members in SIRIUS-21 and found that crew members were more engaged and performed at higher levels on days when their tasks decreased in sequence (i.e., the more meaningful tasks were performed earlier in the day and the less meaningful tasks were performed later in the day).

Utilizing these insights from SIRIUS-21, we developed and operationalized a simple theory of the flow of engagement from one task to the next. Specifically we utilized agent based modeling to generate insights and recommendations for how crew members’ tasks could be scheduled in a given day to enhance engagement and performance. Consistent with the SIRIUS-21 results, we found that day-level engagement was highest when the most meaningful tasks occurred earlier in the day and were done consecutively or close together, which notion we refer to as engagement cascade.

We followed this up with a laboratory experiment in which 323 undergraduate students completed a series of four tasks that varied in terms of meaningfulness. Again, we found that overall engagement and performance were highest when the most meaningful tasks occurred earlier and were concentrated together rather than later in the day or spread out. To assess generalizability of these findings, we conducted a three-week experiment involving 132 employees who worked in multifaceted jobs. Each day, we asked participants to sequence their work tasks differently with respect to the meaningfulness of the tasks. Findings largely replicated: overall engagement and performance were higher on days when individuals sequenced tasks such that the most meaningful tasks occurred earlier and were concentrated.

The implications of these findings highlight the importance of engagement cascade, in which a positive compounding of engagement is enjoyed when the most engaging tasks are concentrated and performed earlier in the day. Engagement cascade reflects a positive spillover of engagement in a task to engagement in another task (i.e., residual engagement), which over the course of a day-length sequence, results in higher day-level engagement. The heightened engagement experienced from performing meaningful tasks later in the day, or in an unconnected manner throughout the day, has less opportunity to compound and to positively impact engagement in subsequent tasks.

Overall, our research sheds light on how crew members apply and maintain their psychological energies across task transitions throughout the workday. Our research highlights that although engagement in subsequent tasks may be reduced when crew members’ attention remains riveted to a prior task after switching, this negative effect on engagement may be significantly reduced by features of the task set (e.g., scheduling highly engaging tasks, and tasks which can be completed earlier in the day). Our research also provides insight into how the spillover of engagement has bearing on effectiveness in multifaceted work, and by virtue of this insight, how the scheduling of tasks may be used to achieve engagement and performance bonuses. Indeed, our research indicates that beginning the day with the most engaging and meaningful work early and in a concentrated manner results in a positive spillover of engagement that is enjoyed across subsequent tasks, resulting in higher overall daily engagement and performance, relative to days structured differently.

References:

Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 692-724.

Newton, D. W., LePine, J. A., Kim, J., Wellman, N., & Bush, J. T. (2020). Taking engagement to task: The nature and functioning of task engagement across transitions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105, 1-18.

NOTE: End date changed to 12/31/2022 per HRP and "in progress" information in NSSC (Ed., 3/20/2020)

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2020 per NSSC information (Ed., 6/28/19)

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2019 per NSSC information (Ed., 3/6/18)

NOTE: Element change to Human Factors & Behavioral Performance; previously Behavioral Health & Performance (Ed., 1/18/17)

Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7

We completed our participation in the Scientific International Research In a Unique terrestrial Station (SIRIUS)-21 campaign. Following crew member egress, we conducted short debriefings with crew members about their experience staying motivated and transitioning tasks throughout the course of the mission. During the mission, crew members completed two brief surveys three times each week. Specifically, in the course of a workday, following a “task-transition-task” episode, crew members completed a brief survey about their engagement and attention residue in past tasks and their anticipatory engagement in upcoming tasks—and whether this anticipation distracted or motivated them on the initial task that was part of the “task-transition-task” sequence. Additionally, at the end of that same workday, crew members assessed their general engagement and performance that day.

Our analyses demonstrate confirming evidence that ruminating on prior tasks—which is referred to as attention residue (Leroy, 2009)—impairs crew members’ engagement and effectiveness on subsequent tasks (Newton, LePine, Kim, Wellman, & Bush, 2020). Regarding looking ahead to upcoming tasks, evidence suggests that anticipating upcoming tasks elicits negative emotions in crew members, and these negative emotions reduce subsequent task engagement and effectiveness. In investigating crew members’ general motivation flowing from their daily task structure, we found that different task sequences across a given day matter to crew members’ overall engagement. Specifically, the decreasing sequence (i.e., starting the day with the most engaging tasks and finishing the day with the least engaging tasks) resulted in the highest overall daily engagement and therefore also daily performance, particularly on Mondays. This decreasing sequence had a stronger effect than the increasing sequence (i.e., starting the day with the least engaging tasks and finishing the day with the most engaging tasks), u-shaped sequence (i.e., starting and finishing the day with the most engaging tasks, and clustering the least engaging tasks in the middle of the day), and inverted u-shaped sequence (i.e., starting and finishing the day with the least engaging tasks, and clustering the most engaging tasks in the middle of the day).

These results allow us to gain insight into a potential engagement cascade, in which a positive compounding of engagement is enjoyed as the most engaging tasks are performed earlier in the day and create a positive spillover across later task sequences. However, the heightened engagement experienced from performing meaningful tasks later in the day, or in an unconnected manner at the beginning and the end of the day, has less opportunity to compound and to positively impact engagement in the tasks that follow.

In summary, our ongoing research aims to help leverage the benefits of engaging in work across task transitions, while limiting the associated risks of engagement spillover. Understanding engagement spillover has significant bearing on multifaceted work and the structure and order of individuals’ workdays in a variety of organizational contexts, including exploration missions.

References

Ancona D, Chong CL. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle, and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.

Leroy S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168-181. doi: 10.1006/obhd.2001.2974

Newton DW, LePine JA, Kim JK, Wellman N, Bush JT. (2020) Taking engagement to task: The nature and functioning of task engagement across transitions. J Appl Psychol, 105(1), 1-18. Epub 2019 Jun 17. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000428 ; PubMed PMID: 31204829.

NOTE: End date changed to 12/31/2022 per HRP and "in progress" information in NSSC (Ed., 3/20/2020)

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2020 per NSSC information (Ed., 6/28/19)

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2019 per NSSC information (Ed., 3/6/18)

NOTE: Element change to Human Factors & Behavioral Performance; previously Behavioral Health & Performance (Ed., 1/18/17)

Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7

We consider the effects of crew member entrainment (Ancona & Chong, 1996) as crew members’ engagement and motivation spills over between tasks to affect task effectiveness. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, our data collection efforts were delayed until the end of 2021 when in-person experimental activities could be safely conducted. Therefore, in the fall of 2021, we began data collection in the Nezemnyy Eksperimental’nyy Kompleks (NEK), Russia’s IBMP Ground-based Experimental Complex, and also conducted pilot studies in our university lab. [Ed. Note: The IBMP is Russia's Institute of Biomedical Problems.]

NEK Campaign: We examined the challenges in anticipating upcoming tasks as part of the 2021 NEK campaign. As with our previous investigations – as part of the NASA Human Exploration Research Analog (HERA) campaigns – we coordinated with NASA subject matter experts to select a finalized series of “task-transition-task” episodes to examine the spillover of engagement across tasks. Three times each week, after the completion of the second task of a “task-transition-task” episode, crew members complete a brief survey about their engagement and attention residue in past tasks and their anticipatory engagement in upcoming tasks – and whether this anticipation distracted or motivated them on the initial task in a “task-transition-task” sequence. Thus far, we have seen confirming evidence that ruminating on prior tasks – which is referred to as attention residue (Leroy, 2009) – impairs crew members’ engagement and effectiveness on subsequent tasks. Additionally, evidence from the NEK environment in 2021 shows that anticipating upcoming tasks elicits negative emotions in crew members, and these negative emotions reduce crew members’ subsequent task engagement and effectiveness.

In addition to investigating “task-transition-task” episodes, we are also in the process of assessing crew members’ general motivation flowing from their daily task structure. Therefore, on the same days of the task-transition-task episodes, crew members reflect – at the end of the day – on their general engagement and motivation that day. Although we have limited data thus far on this perspective, the data will eventually allow us to investigate whether one’s daily structure affects one’s motivational flow. We plan to leverage this data to inform a theory of task transitions and scheduling. Specifically, we reason that the sequencing of tasks – with respect to the general meaningfulness of the underlying tasks – could produce positive or negative compounding effects on engagement due to internal processes and feedback loops responsible for the spillover of engagement. By directly leveraging the positive and negative mechanisms involved in these loops, as determined by agent-based modelling, we aim to gain further theoretical insight into the nature of task sequencing effects and when they might be strengthened or weakened.

In summary, our ongoing research aims to help NASA leverage the benefits of engaging in work across task transitions, while limiting the associated risks of engagement spillover in the forms of attention residue and anticipatory engagement. Understanding this phenomenon of engagement spillover has significant bearing on multifaceted work and the structure and order of individuals’ workdays in a variety of organizational contexts, including exploration missions.

References:

Ancona, D., & Chong, C. L. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle, and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.

Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168-181. doi: 10.1006/obhd.2001.2974

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2020 per NSSC information (Ed., 6/28/19)

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2019 per NSSC information (Ed., 3/6/18)

NOTE: Element change to Human Factors & Behavioral Performance; previously Behavioral Health & Performance (Ed., 1/18/17)

Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7

We consider the effects of crew member entrainment (Ancona & Chong, 1996) between crew member engagement and effectiveness. Entrainment may be especially problematic as astronauts shift between tasks that may vary significantly in their physical, cognitive, and emotional demands (Smith-Jentsch, 2015). Features of specific tasks that individuals transition between can foster attention residue, or the inability to decouple one’s mental energies from previous tasks (Leroy, 2009), which in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks. The difficulty in transitioning one’s attention also creates problems with transitions between tasks, and in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks.

In previous years, we have viewed entrainment as retrospective—tasks that crew members have already transitioned away from that linger with them (Newton, LePine, Kim, Wellman, & Bush, 2020). Although our ongoing work replicates previous findings in different habitats or contexts, we now consider entrainment effects from anticipating upcoming tasks. It is possible that crew members may struggle to transition effectively between tasks when they anticipate or are preoccupied by an upcoming future task. In 2020, prior to COVID-19, we conducted one mission as part of campaign 5 in HERA to investigate this effect. Although we do not directly test this hypothesis aboard the ISS, our post-flight interviews explore this phenomenon. Our collective findings enhance our understanding of the psychological and interpersonal pathways through which entrainment operates (both backward and forward looking), and individual and task attributes that can mitigate its effects. Understanding this phenomenon could help develop strategies to improve individual and team effectiveness (i.e., including task scheduling) in a variety of organizational contexts including exploration missions.

HERA Campaigns: In 2020, we found preliminary support for our anticipatory engagement hypotheses in one HERA mission. As with previous years, we sought to seamlessly integrate our study into the natural workflow of HERA crew members. That is, we utilized existing maintenance and payload tasks which were scheduled to occur during the mission. Working with subject matter experts (SMEs), we selected a finalized series of “task-transition-task” episodes to serve as the focal point of the study. After the completion of the second task, crew members completed a brief survey about their engagement and attention residue in past tasks and their anticipatory engagement in upcoming tasks—and whether this anticipation distracted or motivated them on the initial task in a “task-transition-task” sequence.

ISS Campaigns: One crew member returned from orbit in 2020. While aboard the ISS, this crew member reflected every two weeks on a recent transition between two tasks. Reported were the level of engagement in the tasks, how seamlessly was the transition, and what generally went well and what could have gone better. Following return to Earth, we conducted a 30-minute qualitative interview, where we asked about experience transitioning aboard the ISS. These interviews gave insight into the task transition phenomenon.

NEK (Nezemnyy Eksperimental’nyy Kompleks, Russia’s IBMP Ground-based Experimental Complex) Campaign: We examined the challenges in anticipating upcoming tasks during 2019 in the NEK environment. We found that anticipating an upcoming task reduced engagement in a present task if the upcoming task were complex in nature. These effects appear to be stronger at the beginning of the mission prior to routinization. Although we planned to further investigate this phenomenon in 2020, COVID-19 has postponed subsequent NEK missions until 2021.

Our findings reveal a rich understanding of task transitions that influence multifaceted work. Consistent with our previous findings, task engagement has positive and negative consequences on subsequent tasks. On the one hand, task engagement activates positive affect and thereby engagement in subsequent tasks, which increases crew member effectiveness. On the other hand, task engagement lingers after individuals move to subsequent tasks, negatively impacting subsequent task engagement and effectiveness. Completing a task is critical in reducing the negative cognitive effects that can impair subsequent engagement and effectiveness. Moreover, preliminary evidence from HERA and NEK missions suggests that anticipating upcoming tasks reduces task engagement, particularly when the upcoming task is perceived to be complex. Our ongoing research aims to help NASA leverage the benefits of engaging work during task transitions, while limiting the associated risks of attention residue and anticipatory engagement.

References:

Ancona, D., & Chong, C. L. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle, and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.

Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168-181. doi: 10.1006/obhd.2001.2974

Newton, D. W., LePine, J. A., Kim, J., Wellman, N., & Bush, J. T. (2020). Taking engagement to task: The nature and functioning of task engagement across transitions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105, 1-18. doi:10.1037/apl0000428

Smith-Jentsch, K. A. (2015). On shifting from autonomous to interdependent work: What we know and what we need to learn (pp. 1-31). Houston, TX: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2020 per NSSC information (Ed., 6/28/19)

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2019 per NSSC information (Ed., 3/6/18)

NOTE: Element change to Human Factors & Behavioral Performance; previously Behavioral Health & Performance (Ed., 1/18/17)

Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7

We consider the effects of crew member entrainment (Ancona & Chong, 1996) between crew member engagement and effectiveness. Entrainment may be especially problematic as astronauts shift between tasks that may vary significantly in their physical, cognitive, and emotional demands (Smith-Jentsch, 2015). Features of specific tasks that individuals transition between can foster attention residue, or the inability to decouple one’s mental energies from previous tasks (Leroy, 2009), which in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks. The difficulty in transitioning one’s attention also creates problems with transitions between tasks, and in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks.

In previous years, we have viewed entrainment as backward looking—tasks that crew members have already transitioned away from that may linger with them (Newton, LePine, Kim, Wellman, & Bush, 2020--see Bibliography section for reference). Although our ongoing work replicates previous findings in different habitats or contexts, we now consider future entrainment effects. That is, it is possible that crew members may struggle to transition effectively between tasks when they anticipate or are preoccupied by an upcoming future task. In 2019, we conducted ground experiments within HERA (Human Explorations Research Analog) and NEK (Nezemnyy Eksperimental’nyy Kompleks, Russia’s IBMP Ground-based Experimental Complex) that isolate this effect. Although we do not directly test this hypothesis aboard the ISS, our post-flight interviews have begun to explore this phenomenon. Our collective findings enhance our understanding of the psychological and interpersonal pathways through which entrainment operates (both backward and forward looking), and individual and task attributes that can mitigate its effects. This could lead to the development of strategies to improve individual and team effectiveness in a variety of organizational contexts including exploration missions.

HERA Campaigns: In 2019, we continued to test and find support for our hypotheses in HERA missions. As with previous years, we sought to seamlessly integrate our study into the natural workflow of HERA crew members. That is, we utilized existing maintenance and payload tasks which were scheduled to occur during the mission. Working with SMEs (subject matter experts), we selected a finalized series of “task-transition-task” episodes to serve as the focal point of the study. After the completion of the second task, crew members completed a brief survey about their engagement and attention residue in past tasks and their anticipatory engagement in upcoming tasks—and whether this anticipation distracted or motivated them on the initial task in a “task-transition-task” sequence.

ISS Campaigns: Three crew members returned from orbit in 2019. While aboard the ISS, crew members reflected every two weeks on a recent transition between two tasks. They reported their level of engagement in the tasks, how seamlessly they transitioned, and what generally went well and what could have gone better. Following their return to Earth, we conducted 30-45 minute qualitative interviews with them, where we asked them about their experience transitioning aboard the ISS. These interviews gave insight into the task transition phenomenon.

NEK Campaign: Based upon feedback from other crews, we examined the challenges in anticipating upcoming tasks in the NEK environment. We found that anticipating an upcoming task reduced engagement in a present task if the upcoming task was complex in nature. These effects appear to be stronger at the beginning of the mission prior to routinization. We plan to pursue this phenomenon in subsequent NEK missions in 2020 and 2021.

Our aggregate findings reveal a better understanding of the transitional process that influences multifaceted work. Consistent with our previous findings, task engagement has positive and negative consequences on subsequent tasks. On the positive side, task engagement activates positive affect and thereby engagement in subsequent tasks, which increases crew member effectiveness. On the negative side, we find that task engagement lingers after individuals move to subsequent tasks, negatively impacting subsequent task engagement and effectiveness. Completing a task is critical in reducing the negative cognitive effects that can linger. When tasks are incomplete, the negative pathway remains active and reduces subsequent engagement and effectiveness. Moreover, preliminary evidence from NEK suggests that upcoming tasks impair current task engagement when the upcoming task is perceived to be complex. Our ongoing research aims at helping NASA leverage the benefits of engaging work during task transitions, while limiting the associated risks of attention residue and anticipatory engagement.

References

Ancona, D., & Chong, C. L. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle, and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.

Smith-Jentsch, K. A. (2015). On shifting from autonomous to interdependent work: What we know and what we need to learn (pp. 1-31). Houston, TX: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168-181.

NOTE: Extended to 5/15/2019 per NSSC information (Ed., 3/6/18)

NOTE: Element change to Human Factors & Behavioral Performance; previously Behavioral Health & Performance (Ed., 1/18/17)

Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7

We consider how crew member entrainment (Ancona & Chong, 1996) is influenced by the linkage between employee engagement and effectiveness. Entrainment may be especially problematic as astronauts shift between tasks that may vary significantly in their physical, cognitive, and emotional demands (Smith-Jentsch, 2015). Features of specific tasks that individuals transition between can foster attention residue, or the inability to decouple one’s mental energies from previous tasks (Leroy, 2009), which in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks. The difficulty in transitioning one’s attention also creates problems with transitions between tasks, and in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks.

In previous years, we have viewed entrainment as backward looking—tasks that crew members have already transitioned away from that may linger with them. Although our ongoing work replicates our previous findings in different habitats or contexts, we have now begun to consider future entrainment effects. That is, it is possible that crew members may struggle to transition effectively between tasks when they anticipate or are preoccupied by another task. We are currently conducting ground experiments within HERA (Human Explorations Research Analog) and NEK (Nezemnyy Eksperimental’nyy Kompleks, Russia’s IBMP Ground-based Experimental Complex) that isolate this effect. Although we do not directly test this hypothesis aboard the ISS, our post-flight interviews have begun to explore this phenomenon. The collective findings from these examinations will enhance our understanding of the psychological and interpersonal pathways through which entrainment operates (both backward and forward looking), and individual and task attributes that can mitigate its effects. This could lead to the development of strategies to improve individual and team effectiveness in a variety of organizational contexts including exploration missions.

HERA Campaigns: In 2018, we continued to test and find support for our hypotheses in HERA missions. As with previous years, we sought to seamlessly integrate our study into the natural workflow of HERA non-astronaut crew members. In other words, we did not introduce any new tasks, but utilized the existing maintenance and other payload tasks which were scheduled to occur during the mission. With this information in mind, we were able to select a finalized series of “task-transition-task” episodes to serve as the focal point of the study. After the completion of the second task, crew members completed a brief survey about their engagement and attention residue in the tasks. Individuals in HERA mission control recorded notes about crew member task effectiveness. In upcoming HERA tasks, as mentioned, we will survey individuals about the extent to which they anticipated a second task, and whether this anticipation distracted or motivated them on the initial task in a “task-transition-task” sequence.

ISS Campaigns: Two crew members flew and returned from orbit in 2018. Due to unforeseen circumstances, one crew member had his flight delayed until 2019. The crew members who participated in our study periodically (i.e., every two weeks) reflected on a recent transition between two tasks. They reported on their level of engagement in the tasks, how seamlessly they transitioned, and what generally went well and what could have gone better. Following their return to Earth, we conducted 30-45 minute qualitative interviews with them, where we asked them about their experience transitioning aboard the ISS. These interviews, as alluded to above, indicated the importance of forward looking challenges associated with entrainment that we plan to examine in upcoming sister campaigns.

NEK Campaign: We have been preparing to participate in NEK. Based upon feedback from other crews, we plan to examine the challenges in anticipating upcoming tasks and the potential negative effects these bring to present tasks. We have been identifying tasks with NASA crew members that again allow us to seamlessly integrate our study into a crew’s natural work flow.

Our findings thus far reveal a better understanding of the transitional process that influences effectiveness in multifaceted work. Importantly, we find that task one engagement has positive and negative consequences on subsequent tasks. On the positive side, task one engagement activates positive affect and thereby engagement in subsequent tasks, which increases crew member effectiveness. On the negative side, we find that task one engagement lingers after individuals move on to subsequent tasks, negatively impacting subsequent task engagement and effectiveness. Completing a task is critical in reducing the negative cognitive effects that can linger. When tasks are incomplete, the negative pathway remains active and reduces subsequent engagement and effectiveness. However, when previous tasks are completed, then the negative effects are short-circuited. Our ongoing research aims at helping NASA leverage the benefits of engaging work during task transitions, while limiting the associated risks of attention residue.

References

Ancona, D., & Chong, C. L. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle, and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.

Smith-Jentsch, K. A. (2015). On shifting from autonomous to interdependent work: What we know and what we need to learn (pp. 1-31). Houston, TX: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168-181.

NOTE: Element change to Human Factors & Behavioral Performance; previously Behavioral Health & Performance (Ed., 1/18/17)

Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168-181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.04.002

Louis, M. R., & Sutton, R. I. (1991). Switching cognitive gears: From habits of mind to active thinking. Human Relations, 44(1), 55-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001872679104400104

Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7

We consider how crew member entrainment (Ancona & Chong, 1996) is influenced by the linkage between employee engagement and effectiveness in the context of jobs that vary in regard to required physical, cognitive, and emotional energies. The problem of entrainment may be especially problematic as astronauts shift between individual and crew tasks that may vary significantly in their physical, cognitive, and emotional demands (Smith-Jentsch, 2015). Although individual, job, and organizational attributes foster a base of job engagement (Kahn, 1990), features of the specific tasks that individuals transition between can also foster attention residue, or the inability to decouple one’s energies from previous tasks (Leroy, 2009), which in turn, can hinder effectiveness in subsequent tasks. In other words, lingering engagement in prior tasks after a transition has occurred makes it difficult for individuals to mentally disengage and disconnect from their prior task and focus their full attention on the new task. The difficulty in transitioning also creates problems with transitions between tasks, and in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks.

We are currently conducting ground experiments within HERA (Human Explorations Research Analog) and have begun to extend our research with astronauts aboard the ISS. The findings from these experiments will enhance our understanding of the psychological and interpersonal pathways through which entrainment operates, and individual and task attributes that can mitigate its effects. This could lead to the development of interventions to improve individual and team effectiveness in a variety of organizational contexts including exploration missions.

HERA Campaigns: In 2017, we tested our hypotheses in three HERA missions, one of which was cut short by Hurricane Harvey. Consequently, we plan to continue testing our hypotheses with HERA missions in 2018. Prior to analog participation, we collected relevant personality characteristics and demographic information of participants. In order to integrate our study as seamlessly as possible into the natural workflow of HERA non-astronaut crew members, we identified transitions between independent and interdependent tasks that are performed regularly by all crew members and for which performance data is already available. In other words, we did not introduce any new tasks, but rather utilized the existing maintenance and other payload tasks which were scheduled to occur during the mission. With this information in mind, we were able to select a finalized series of “task-transition-task” episodes to serve as the focal point of the study. After the completion of the second task, crew members completed a brief survey about their engagement and attention residue in the tasks. Individuals in HERA mission control recorded notes about crew member task effectiveness.

In total, we have thus far analyzed 477 task-transition-task episodes. We employed multilevel path analysis (transitions nested within individuals) to test our hypotheses. We found that NASA crews experienced attention residue when transitioning from one task to another that partially offset the positive spillover of engagement. Our results suggest that individuals may find it challenging to let go of engaging tasks, and the degree to which they hang on cognitively appears to hinder their subsequent task engagement and task effectiveness.

Overall, our findings from HERA and previous Arizona State University (ASU) lab studies reveal a better understanding of the transitional process that influences effectiveness in multifaceted work as crew members transition between tasks. Importantly, we find that engagement in a prior task can have both positive and negative consequences on subsequent tasks. On the positive side, individuals who exhibit higher levels of engagement in an initial task are more likely to experience positive affect and thereby engage in subsequent tasks, increasing their effectiveness. However, on the negative side we find that engagement in a prior task can also linger after individuals move on to subsequent tasks, negatively impacting subsequent task engagement and effectiveness. Achieving a sense of closure is critical in reducing the negative cognitive effects that can linger. When tasks are incomplete, the negative pathway remains active and reduces subsequent engagement and effectiveness. However, when previous tasks are completed, then the negative effects are short-circuited. Our ongoing research aims at helping NASA leverage the benefits of engaging work during task transitions, while limiting the associated risks of attention residue.

References

Ancona, D., & Chong, C. L. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle, and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.

Smith-Jentsch, K. A. (2015). On shifting from autonomous to interdependent work: What we know and what we need to learn (pp. 1-31). Houston, TX: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724.

Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168-181.

Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168-181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.04.002

Louis, M. R., & Sutton, R. I. (1991). Switching cognitive gears: From habits of mind to active thinking. Human Relations, 44(1), 55-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001872679104400104

Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7

The proposed research program begins to address the performance effects of entrainment to a particular work style and then switching to another style during an operational space flight context. Specifically, we explore what individual attributes make crew members more or less susceptible to entrainment, and what can be done to mitigate the negative effects of entrainment and improve individual and team capabilities to engage in effective task switching. In addressing these questions, the proposed studies also contribute to answering the following identified Integrated Research Plan (IRP) gaps: Team Gap 1 (need to understand threats to teams during long duration missions), Team Gap 3 (need to identify countermeasures to support team function for all phases of autonomous, long duration missions), and Team Gap 8 (need to identify psychosocial and psychological factors, measures, and combinations thereof that can be used to compose effective crews for autonomous, long-duration missions).

We consider how crew member entrainment (Ancona & Chong, 1996) is influenced by the linkage between employee engagement and effectiveness in the context of jobs that vary in regard to required cognitive, emotional, physical, and social energies. The problem of entrainment may be especially problematic as astronauts shift between individual and crew tasks that may vary significantly in their physical, cognitive, and emotional demands (Smith-Jentsch, 2015). Although individual, job, and organizational attributes foster a base of job engagement (Kahn, 1990), features of the specific tasks that individuals transition between can also foster residual engagement, or the inability to decouple one’s energies from previous tasks, which in turn, can hinder effectiveness in subsequent tasks. In other words, lingering engagement in prior tasks after a transition has occurred (i.e., residual engagement) makes it difficult for individuals to mentally, emotionally, or socially disengage and disconnect from their prior task and focus their full attention and energy on the new task. The difficulty in transitioning also creates problems with transitions between tasks, and in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks.

We are currently conducting ground experiments within HERA (Human Explorations Research Analog) as well as in Arizona State University (ASU) laboratory settings. The findings from these experiments will enhance our understanding of the psychological and interpersonal pathways through which entrainment or residual engagement operates, and individual and task attributes that can mitigate its effects. This could lead to the development of interventions to improve individual and team effectiveness in a variety of organizational contexts including exploration missions.

HERA Campaigns: In 2016, we tested our hypotheses in four HERA missions (16 participants over a one-year time period), and we plan to continue testing our hypotheses with HERA missions in 2017. Prior to analog participation, we collected relevant personality characteristics and demographic information of participants, leveraging pre-existing data on these characteristics where possible. Our objective is to integrate the work of this study as seamlessly as possible into the natural workflow of HERA non-astronaut crew members. To accomplish this, we identified transitions between independent and interdependent tasks that are performed regularly by all crew members and for which performance data is already available. In other words, we did not introduce any new tasks, but rather utilized the existing maintenance and other payload tasks which were scheduled to occur during the mission. With this information in mind, we were able to select a finalized series of “task-transition-task” episodes to serve as the focal point of the study. After the completion of the second task, crew members completed a brief survey about their engagement and residual engagement in the tasks. Individuals in HERA mission control recorded notes about crew member task effectiveness.

In total, we captured 352 task-transition-task episodes. We employed multilevel path analysis (transitions nested within individuals) to test our hypotheses. We found that NASA crews experienced residual engagement when transitioning from one task to another that partially offset the positive spillover of engagement. Our results suggest that individuals may find it challenging to let go of engaging tasks, and the degree to which they hang on cognitively and emotionally appears to hinder their subsequent task engagement and task effectiveness.

ASU Lab Studies: We recruited 364 undergraduates to participate in a lab study in exchange for course credit. Participants were randomly assigned onto a team of four individuals. Each team completed an interdependent team task, during which time each individual filled a unique role on the team. Following the completion of the team task, participants transitioned to an individual task. Our preliminary results show that individuals who were engaged in the team task experienced a higher degree of residual engagement during the individual task. Further, residual engagement in the first task (during the second task) resulted in diminished levels of engagement in the second task as well as lower levels of effectiveness in the second task. We found that these effects were particularly strong when individuals perceived the prior task was incomplete or unfinished. However, we also found that the positive indirect effects between task engagement were mediated by positive affect.

Overall, these preliminary findings reveal a better understanding of the transitional process that influences effectiveness in multifaceted work as individuals transition between tasks. Importantly, we find that engagement in a prior task can have both positive and negative consequences on subsequent tasks. On the positive side, individuals who exhibit higher levels of engagement in an initial task are more likely to experience positive affect and thereby engage in subsequent tasks, increasing their effectiveness. However, on the negative side we find that engagement in a prior task can also linger after individuals move on to subsequent tasks, negatively impacting subsequent task engagement and effectiveness. Our ongoing research aims at helping NASA leverage the benefits of engaging work during task transitions, while limiting the associated risks.

References

Ancona, D., & Chong, C. L. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle, and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.

Smith-Jentsch, K. A. (2015). On shifting from autonomous to interdependent work: What we know and what we need to learn (pp. 1-31). Houston, TX: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724.

Louis, M. R., & Sutton, R. I. (1991). Switching cognitive gears: From habits of mind to active thinking. Human Relations, 44(1), 55-76.

Marks, M. A., Mathieu, J. E., & Zaccaro, S. J. (2001). A temporally based framework and taxonomy of team processes. Academy of Management Review, 26(3), 356-376.

Rotundo, M., & Sackett, P. R. (2002). The relative importance of task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance to global ratings of job performance: A policy-capturing approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(1), 66-80.

We consider how crew member entrainment (Ancona & Chong, 1996) is influenced by the linkage between employee engagement and effectiveness in the context of jobs that vary in regard to required cognitive, emotional, physical, and social energies. The problem of entrainment may be especially problematic as astronauts shift between individual and crew tasks that may vary significantly in their physical, cognitive, and emotional demands (Smith-Jentsch, 2015). Although individual, job, and organizational attributes foster a base of job engagement (Kahn, 1990), features of the specific tasks that individuals transition between can also foster residual engagement, or the inability to decouple one’s energies from previous tasks, which in turn, can hinder effectiveness in subsequent tasks. In other words, lingering engagement in prior tasks after a transition has occurred (i.e., residual engagement) makes it difficult for individuals to mentally, emotionally, or socially disengage and disconnect from their prior task and focus their full attention and energy on the new task. The difficulty in transitioning also creates problems with transitions between tasks, and in turn, hinders effectiveness in subsequent tasks.

We are currently conducting ground experiments within HERA (Human Explorations Research Analog) as well as in Arizona State University (ASU) laboratory settings. The findings from these experiments will enhance our understanding of the psychological and interpersonal pathways through which entrainment or residual engagement operates, and individual and task attributes that can mitigate its effects. This could lead to the development of interventions to improve individual and team effectiveness in a variety of organizational contexts including exploration missions.

HERA Campaigns: We anticipate testing our hypotheses in four HERA missions (16 participants over a one-year time period). We have currently completed the first wave of the HERA campaign. Prior to analog participation, we collected relevant personality characteristics and demographic information of participants, leveraging pre-existing data on these characteristics where possible. Our objective is to integrate the work of this study as seamlessly as possible into the natural workflow of HERA non-astronaut crew members. To accomplish this, we identified transitions between independent and interdependent tasks that are performed regularly by all crew members and for which performance data is already available. In other words, we did not introduce any new tasks, but rather utilized the existing maintenance and other payload tasks which were scheduled to occur during the mission. With this information in mind, we were able to select a finalized series of “task-transition-task” episodes to serve as the focal point of the study. After the completion of the second task, crew members completed a brief survey about their engagement and residual engagement in the tasks. Individuals in HERA mission control recorded notes about crew member task effectiveness. Because the campaign is only recently completed, and we have yet to gain access to performance information for this first wave, we are currently unable to comment on the data findings.

ASU Lab Studies: We recruited 363 undergraduates to participate in a lab study in exchange for course credit. 119 of the participants completed a series of online tasks, which they performed independently. The results of these findings show that participants’ engagement in the first task predicted their residual engagement during the second task. Further, when participants experienced residual engagement, their engagement and performance levels on the second task suffered. This effect was particularly strong with individuals lower in cognitive ability.

The other 244 participants were randomly assigned onto a team of four individuals. Each team completed an interdependent team task, during which time each individual filled a unique role on the team. Following the completion of the team task, participants transitioned to an individual task. Our preliminary results show that individuals who were engaged in the team task experienced a higher degree of residual engagement during the individual task. Further, residual engagement in the first task (during the second task) resulted in diminished levels of engagement in the second task as well as lower levels of effectiveness in the second task.

Overall, these preliminary findings reveal a better understanding of the transitional process that influences effectiveness in multifaceted work as individuals transition between tasks. Importantly, we find that engagement in a prior task can have both positive and negative consequences on subsequent tasks. On the positive side, individuals who exhibit higher levels of engagement in an initial task are more likely to engage in subsequent tasks, increasing their effectiveness. However, on the negative side we find that engagement in a prior task can also linger after individuals move on to subsequent tasks, negatively impacting subsequent task engagement and effectiveness. Our ongoing research aims at helping NASA leverage the benefits of engaging work during task transitions, while limiting the associated risks.

References

Ancona, D., & Chong, C. L. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle, and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.

Smith-Jentsch, K. A. (2015). On shifting from autonomous to interdependent work: What we know and what we need to learn (pp. 1-31). Houston, TX: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724.